Revised February 2008
This factsheet gives introductory guidance. It:
- examines the development and use of the terms ‘learning’ and ‘development’
- provides brief definitions and issues to consider for the various techniques used.
Audience for this factsheet
‘Learning’, ‘development’ and ‘training’ are terms that are often used interchangeably. This leads to some confusion, especially as the way the terms are used has changed gradually over the years. This factsheet focuses on the terms ‘learning’ and ‘development’ and the various techniques and issues associated with them. There is a separate overview factsheet on training.
Managers in small and medium sized organisations have to take responsibility for developing their employees among a host of other activities. Similarly, managers in larger organisations are increasingly responsible for developing staff and need to understand the terms and techniques used, not least to help them in discussions with their colleagues who are involved full-time in learning and development, and training.
This factsheet is aimed mainly at managers who are not specialists in the area of learning, development and training, and who may need help in understanding the various terms and techniques. However, students and professionals who need to refresh themselves quickly may also find it useful. It defines ‘learning’ and ‘training’, then provides brief definitions of the various techniques used and issues to consider.
Definitions of learning and development
Since the mid-1990s, there has been a gradual shift in the techniques and language used to describe the steps taken by employers to help employees perform their jobs more effectively. Until the closing years of the last century, ‘training’ would have been the word most frequently employed, whether to describe a job (‘training manager’) or a development technique (which would probably have been a classroom-based event). Now ‘learning’, often linked with ‘development’, is the key term.
CIPD’s definition of learning is ‘a self-directed, work-based process leading to increased adaptive capacity’; in other words, an environment where individuals ‘learn to learn’ and possess the capabilities that enable them to do so to help their employers to build and retain competitive advantage. Various authors have somewhat different definitions, but what they all have in common is that they link the enhancement of the performance of individuals with that of organisations. Our definition is taken from our 2005 Change agenda Training to learning.
The term ‘development’ is usually used in a wider context than either ‘learning’ or ‘training’ and covers both of these. It tends to refer to a longer process of learning, acquiring skills or knowledge that may include a number of elements such as training, coaching, formal and informal interventions, education or planned experience. It can be structured by HRD professionals, or created as a personal plan. For example, ‘career development’ is a planned process of different learning experiences that may last for some months or years, and ‘management development’ is the entire structured process by which managers learn and improve their skills. But ‘development’ may be also used as a synonym for training, for example in senior management training, where it can be viewed as a more acceptable term for those who still view ‘training’ as a rather basic or even remedial activity.
CIPD research1 has demonstrated that, in our rapidly changing and increasingly knowledge-based economy, competitive advantage is built where individuals actively seek to acquire the knowledge and skills that promote the organisation’s objectives. Organisations are learning environments, and employment in them is (or should be) a continuous learning experience. Of course learning takes place all the time, through experience, though not all such learning is positive. The point about organisational learning and development is that it should be structured, to enhance benefits for individuals and their employers.
The shift from training to learning
Training is defined by CIPD as ‘an instructor-led and content-based intervention leading to desired changes in behaviour’ (see the Change agenda linked to above), and which, unless it is ‘on-the-job’ training, involves time away from the workplace in a classroom or equivalent. In some contexts (and the armed forces are a notable example), it implies teaching specified skills by practice. Until relatively recently, the implicit assumption was that most, if not all, development of employees would be of this nature.
Clearly, training is one way of making learning happen, but there is no one route to learning. For a fuller description of the limitations of training, see the accompanying factsheet. Different people have different learning preferences. For example, some may prefer to read books, others to attend courses. For more information, see our factsheet on Learning styles.
Most learn best from experience. All this has become increasingly recognised, with the result that there is now a much greater variety of what might be called ‘learning (rather than ‘training’) interventions’ than there was in the past. (An ‘intervention’ can be defined as any event that is deliberately undertaken to assist learning to take place.) CIPD characterises ‘the shift from training to learning …as the progressive movement from the delivery of courses to the development of learning capabilities as a people development strategy’.
This makes the job of the developer (whether a learning professional or a line manager) more complex and challenging than it was, but it also provides the possibility of better outcomes. CIPD advises that ‘because so much learning occurs directly through work, managers should aim to include these responsibilities within their normal repertoire of behaviours, rather than view them as separate learning activities. For that reason they may be viewed as leadership practices that promote learning rather than learning practices that enhance specific knowledge and skills’.
The rest of this factsheet briefly describes, in alphabetical order, the various types of learning interventions, with comments on what they can achieve and points to look out for. It also mentions other terms, such as competencies and knowledge management which, although not strictly interventions, deserve mention. The list is not fully comprehensive, but is restricted to those most commonly used.
Common learning and development terms and techniques
Action learning
Action learning is an approach to learning based on individuals working on real problems that are capable of having action taken on them. The individual needs to be able to identify the problem, own it, and identify steps to resolve it. Colleagues work in groups, or ‘sets’, and learn primarily by questioning their own and others’ proposed actions, identifying courses of further action and a time scale.
It has the substantial benefit of helping to solve real problems and can make a major contribution to freeing up inflexible or traditional thinking. But outcomes can be threatening if radical solutions emerge, so the process needs top level management support.
Bite-sized learning
It is increasingly recognised that people absorb information better if it is provided in small chunks of perhaps an hour or two and in varying formats, so the traditional lengthy training course (for example) is giving way to shorter sessions, perhaps linked with other techniques such as e-learning.
This is a positive and commonsense development, but makes planning and organising learning events more complex.
Blended learning
See e-learning.
Career management and development
Most organisations expect employees to take responsibility for their own careers, but recognise that they need support for this, which can be provided through a variety of measures, including coaching, counselling and mentoring, and management development (see below). More information and practical guidance for HR professional, managers and employees can be found in our practical tool on workplace career discussions.
Coaching, counselling and mentoring
Coaching, counselling and mentoring are one-to-one methods offering personally-tailored reflection and discussion in confidence between a manager and another individual about the latter’s development. The three terms are often used almost interchangeably, but there are differences.
- Coaching is about improving skills and performance, usually for the current job, but also to support career transitions. Usually coaches are hired from outside the organisation, but increasingly some organisations expect all line managers to operate as coaches. For more information, see our coaching factsheet.
- Coaching’s focus on skills distinguishes it from counselling, which is about helping people with personal concerns such as motivation and self-confidence.
- Mentors usually come from inside the organisation. Typically they will be experienced managers, but for senior managers, outside mentors may sometimes be hired. This blurs the difference between coaching and mentoring, but the differences are usually that mentors have relatively long-term relationships with their junior colleagues and their focus is less on events than is the case in coaching. For more information, see our mentoring factsheet.
Matching the right people as coaches and ‘coachees’ and mentors and ‘mentees’ is of key importance, and those managing the programme will need to consider how far gender or age should be a factor; also whether the process should be informal or whether there needs to be a formal agenda with specified learning outcomes.
Competencies
Competencies describe the knowledge and skills people at various roles and levels require. They can thus provide a starting point for determining development needs and for designing programmes. Qualifications such as National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) have been developed using this framework, which requires evidence of competence at work. Many organisations have developed their own competence frameworks. For more information see our factsheet on competences.
Although competencies have value in pinning down what is required for particular jobs, they have been criticised for being overly rigid and prescriptive. Although things are improving, some are still written in bureaucratic language, which gets in the way of their comprehension and acceptance.
Continuous professional development (CPD)
Knowledge changes rapidly and individuals need to keep up-to-date. Recognising this, professional bodies now require members to show evidence that they are in touch with the latest developments and techniques - see CIPD’s guidance to our members on recording CPD .
Monitoring of members is resource-intensive. For example, some professions require attendance at courses or lectures for CPD points but, as every undergraduate knows, being present at a lecture does not imply learning!
Development (or assessment) centres
In development centres, participants take part in a variety of job simulations and tests with observers who assess their performance against pre-determined criteria. The data generated is used to diagnose developmental needs. As well as ongoing development, such centres often form part of the selection process - see our factsheet on using assessment centres as part of the recruitment process.
There is a danger that organisations can use such centres to select in their own image and ‘clone’ candidates. Training of assessors is vital and top management support essential.
Distance learning
The Open University is a very well-known example of a distance learning provider, but there are many others who offer learning materials delivered through the post and (increasingly) electronically. There is thus a growing link with e-learning.
One of the main issues with this type of learning id that learner motivation can slip without contact with fellow students and tutors, and tutor support (remote or face-to-face) is important.
E-learning
The following definition of e-learning is used by CIPD in out annual learning and development surveys: ‘Learning that is delivered, enabled or mediated using electronic technology for the explicit purpose of training in organisations’. This includes the use of distributed technology products (mainly CD-ROMs – the most popular form of delivery) which do not require the user’s computer to be connected to a network, as well as products delivered through the Internet or an intranet. For more information, see our factsheet on e-learning.
Our most recent annual survey is available on the website, with links to earlier surveys.
E-learning is growing. It provides large populations with the same material, and access is flexible so that people can learn in their own time. Against this, e-learning does not appeal to everyone, and it works better for ‘hard’ knowledge than for softer skills like communication or leadership. In a 2004 CIPD poll, 81% of respondents agreed that it was more effective when combined with more traditional forms of learning, which emphasises the growing acceptance of what has become known as ‘blended learning’.
Learning centres
A ‘learning centre’ is a room containing learning materials (books, video, audio and e-learning materials) with TVs, computers, etc to use them where necessary. Depending on the size of the organisation, a member of staff may be present to help.
Many learning centres have been set up with the best of intentions but have failed because of inadequate publicity or lack of interest. Regular events and publicity may help to overcome this.
Learning organisation
In today’s business world in which it is said that the principal competitive advantage is knowledge, especially in the West with its high labour costs, it is argued that the only way to stay ahead is to be an organisation which constantly renews itself and its people through learning. Hence a learning organisation is one in which everyone learns continually. But the concept of the learning organisation is rather more complex than this brief definition. Many organisations have laid claim to the status, but few have achieved it. However, as an aspiration, the concept has value.
Knowledge management
Knowledge management (KM) systems record, store and make available information to those who are encouraged to retrieve it through an intranet or, in the case of a project involving several organisations, an extranet.
KM systems were developed by IT specialists, who assumed that more information automatically meant more learning, which is not necessarily the case. But increasingly HR practitioners are working with their colleagues in IT to develop more ‘learner-friendly’ systems, including electronic discussion, so there is a growing link between KM and e-learning.
Management development
Management development covers the entire structured process by which managers learn and improve their skills: most of the techniques summarised here and in the companion overview factsheet on training (link given above) are used in management development. It includes structured informal learning and formal instructor-led training courses of various kinds, from very specific courses on technical aspects of jobs to courses on wider management skills. And it covers education, which might range from courses for (perhaps prospective) junior managers or supervisors to postgraduate degrees. See our factsheet on management development for more information.
With so many techniques available, the issue in management development is choosing the right options at the right stage. It should not be seen as a quick fix, and can be undermined by short-term ‘faddism’. Successful management development will not take place unless the lead comes from the top.
Project working
Increasingly, managers work in cross-functional teams, exposing them to different functions and enabling them to learn about different aspects of the organisation and ways of doing things. Putting people on such teams is one way of broadening their experience and effectiveness.
Careful thought needs to be given to choosing the right project at the right time for particular individuals, as part of tailored development.
Secondments
Secondments can take place internally, or externally to another organisation (often in the voluntary sector), to broaden experience and acquire new skills. With flatter management structures, they are increasingly important. For very senior people, non-executive directorships are another way of broadening experience. See our factsheet on secondments for more information.
Internal secondments may not provide the fresh outlook that an external secondment may bring, while in external secondments the’ secondee’ may not fit into the culture or may have difficulty settling back when the secondment ends.
Self-managed learning
This term is self-explanatory. People may decide to read technical or management books, perhaps backed by audio or video material.
Motivation is important for this type of learning to be successful, and can decline if the material is seen as dull.
Talent management
Talent management is often described as a future-focused activity, encompassing the identification, development, engagement and deployment of ‘talent’, with organisations using it to develop their workforce to meet the strategic needs of the organisations. There is often a focus on the development of employees considered to have ‘high potential’ or to be future senior managers/leaders. The CIPD learning and development survey 2006 found that 51% of respondents were undertaking some form of talent management activities.
Work–based learning
A catch-all term referring to the many techniques available for people to learn at the workplace rather than through classroom-based training. Coaching, project working and secondments, for example, are all types of work-based learning. Learning from friends, colleagues and managers (and learning from mistakes!) also come under this heading, as does on-the-job training. See our factsheet on on-the-job training for more information.
People learn best from real problems in the workplace. The importance of thinking about the very wide range of options, and how to maximise learning from them, is increasingly appreciated.
References
- REYNOLDS, Jake. (2004) Helping people learn: strategies for moving from training to learning. Research report. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.
Further reading
CIPD members can use our Advanced Search to find additional library resources on this topic and also use our online journals collection to view journal articles online. People Management articles are available to subscribers and CIPD members in the People Management online archive. CIPD books in print can be ordered from our Bookstore
Books and reports
ANDERSON, V. (2007) The value of learning: from return on investment to return on expectation. Research into practice. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. ,
CHARTERED INSTITUTE OF PERSONNEL AND DEVELOPMENT. (2007) Latest trends in learning, training and development : reflections on the 2007 learning and development survey. London: CIPD. Available at: http://www.cipd.co.uk/subjects/training/general/_reftrendtd.htm
HARRISON, R. (2005) Learning and development. 4th ed. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.
HEATON, I. and SUFF, P. (2006) Learning and development. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development.
SLOMAN, M. (2007) The changing world of the trainer: emerging good practice. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
This factsheet was written by Mike Cannell, an independent consultant and formerly CIPD's Adviser - Learning, Training and Development, and updated by CIPD staff.